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Gondar

Coordinates: 12°36′27″N 37°27′33″E / 12.60750°N 37.45917°E / 12.60750; 37.45917
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Not to be confused with Gondor.

Gondar
Gonder
City and woreda
From top, left to right: View of Gondar; Mentewab's Castle; Chancellery of Yohannes I; Fasilides Bath; Enqualal Gemb; and Debre Berhan Selassie Church
Gondar is located in Ethiopia
Gondar
Gondar
Location within Ethiopia
Gondar is located in Horn of Africa
Gondar
Gondar
Location within the Horn of Africa
Gondar is located in Africa
Gondar
Gondar
Location within Africa
Coordinates: 12°36′27″N 37°27′33″E / 12.60750°N 37.45917°E / 12.60750; 37.45917
Country Ethiopia
Region Amhara
ZoneNorth Gondar
Founded1636
Founded byFasilides
Area
 • Total192.27 km2 (74.24 sq mi)
Elevation
2,133 m (6,998 ft)
Population
 (2007)[1]
 • Total207,044
 • Estimate 
(2021)[2]
443,156
 • Density1,100/km2 (2,800/sq mi)
Time zoneUTC+3 (EAT)

Gondar, also spelled Gonder (Amharic: ጎንደር, Gonder[a] or Gondär;[b] formerly ጐንደር, Gʷandar or Gʷender), is a city and woreda in Ethiopia. Located in the North Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Gondar is north of Lake Tana on the Lesser Angereb River and southwest of the Simien Mountains. As of 2021, Gondar has an estimated population of 443,156.[2]

Gondar previously served as the capital of both the Ethiopian Empire and the subsequent Begemder Province. The city holds the remains of several royal castles, including those in the Fasil Ghebbi UNESCO World Heritage Site for which Gondar has been called the "Camelot of Africa".[3]

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]
Fasilides Castle, founded by Emperor Fasilides

Gondar was founded by Emperor Fasilides around the year 1635, and grew as an agricultural and market town. There was a superstition at the time that the capital's name should begin with the letter 'Gʷa' (modern pronunciation 'Gʷe'; Gonder was originally spelt Gʷandar), which also contributed to Gorgora's (founded as Gʷargʷara) growth in the centuries after 1600. Tradition also states that a buffalo led the Emperor Fasilides to a pool beside the Angereb, where an "old and venerable hermit" told the Emperor he would locate his capital there. Fasilides had the pool filled in and built his castle on that same site.[4]

17th century

[edit]
17th century library and chancellery in Gondar

Historian Bahru Zewde highlighted the significance of Gondar by French travellers as "the Paris of Abyssinia".[5] Unlike most early modern cities of Ethiopia, Gondar was relatively peaceful and healthier, but there were reported contagious diseases such as malaria. The peaceful state of Gondar led to localities where caravans from Sudan and the Red Sea converged. Fasilides translocation from Danqaz to Gondar also contributed to trading benefits, despite Lent and rainy season prohibited expeditions that made emperors to stay at the capital. Such incident quickly enabled him to prolong his reign and construct many buildings for the purpose of giving capital and additional reforms.[6] He built 7 churches and the 5 emperors succeeded him aided to build several churches and palaces in what is called Fasil Ghebbi.[7][8]

By the time of Fasilides' death in 1667 Gondar was so well established that his successor Yohannes I (1667-82) made no attempt to seek out a new capital for himself like the former monarchs. On the contrary, he spent much more time in Gondar then his father had done. Though, he left every year on expeditions before returning to his capital, but spent half the year inside the city. In 1669-70, the Emperor gave orders for the Muslims and Jews to move away from the Christians and form their own sectors in the city. At the same time he ordered that persons lending money should not charge interest. Yohannes seems to have encouraged the embellishment of the city. Like his father he erected a large number of edifices, most notably was a two story library and a chancery with an imposing tower. Yohannes died in July 1682, he "lived for ten days in a great new building" constructed that very year. According to the chronicles, this edifice, which was ornamented in ivory, was built by an architect named Walda Giyorgis who was described as "able, intelligent, and of good renown."[9]

Yohannes's successor, Iyasu I (1682-1706), seems to have been very conscious to maintain the good will of the citizens of Gondar and it was reported that he never closed the doors of his palace, even at night, to give his subjects the impression that he trusted them. Iyasu's reign, like that of his father and grandfather, witnessed considerable building in the city. The Emperor was responsible for the erection of a new castle, and several other churches. The castle of Iyasu, which was reportedly erected by Walda Giyorgis, was described as "more beautiful then the house of Solomon." When Iyasu saw it he is said to have been "full of joy and happiness".[10]

18th century

[edit]

Gondar prospered until the reign of Tekle Giyorgis (r. 1779–1784), appropriately nicknamed Fäsame Mängest ("the End of Government"). This period was characterized by glorious personalities of Emperors such as Iyasu I, Bakaffa, Mentewab, and Dawit III. All castles and churches were highly centralized for royal nobilities. The French Charles Poncet, who has served as physician of Iyasu, offers wrote extensively about the town at the end of seventeenth century. His journey was important for it gave the outside world some information about the country during the period of its isolation, when the great city of Gondar was built. Poncet was the first European observer to describe the city, the existence of which was doubted in European circles where it was generally thought that Ethiopia still possessed no fixed capital.[11] His third palace, Iyasu Palace also known as "Saddle on Horseback" resembles a saddle—to highlight the emperor's horsemanship. As a veteran of eleven battles and tax collector, Iyasu extended his boundary to Egypt, Yemen, and Sudan, and decorated his castle with ivory, mirrors, cedar, and a ceiling covered in gold leaf and precious stones.[12]

After the death of Iyasu I death in 1706, Gondar became to decline because of most emperors preferred to enjoy luxurious life rather than spending in politics, giving the raise of Tigre Province such as the future capital Adwa in mid-eighteenth century. The event could lead of the ascension of major political figures in the period: Emperor Bakaffa and his widow Empress Mentewab and the first Tigre warlord Ras Mikael Sehul. However, the power was presided to Mentewab and the Amhara lords, where several members belonged to her family. They defended that the Empress should enthroned as Regent for her grandson as she had been for her son a decade and half earlier.[13]

Mentewab brought her brother Ras Wolde Leul to Gondar and made him Ras Bitwaded. After the death of Iyasu II on 27 June 1755, Ras Mikael Sehul, who was on the way with guns, carpets, gold, silver and other tribute from Tigre, learnt the news two days later, when they arrived at Sembera Zagan in Wagara. Without any delay, he proceeded to the capital, arriving at morrow, he saw Iyasu II's son Iyoas I, who was child at the time of his reign.[13]

On 7 September 1755, an agreement between the Empress and Mikael involving the marriage of his son Dejazmach Wolde Hawaryat to Mentewab's daughter Woizero Atlas can be seen as the path to supreme power to Gondar. Unbeknownst to him, Mentewab believed that Mikael could cooperate with her and merge their dynastic alliance without awareness of his power and wealth. Their ceremony was described to be conducted by "great pomp" befitting with daughter of king and queen and "great enjoy" reigned in the House of Tigre ruler. According to chronicle, the marriage took place in Gondar, some three months after the death of Iyasu II and ascension of Iyoas.[13]

In 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul seized Gondar by considering himself the real leader of the Gondarine period. In May 1769, Mikael killed Iyoas and crowned 70 years old Yohannes II, ushering in the decentralized Zemene Mesafint (Era of Prince) since then. Upon his arrival in 1770, Wolda Hawariat claimed that Gondar had an epidemic of smallpox, where the chief comes to he capital with "ill of fever".[13]

19th century

[edit]

Accusing Ras Ali II of being alienated to Muslim, Wube of Tigre roused his people against Gondar, and seized the town in 1841. Despite being excommunicated by the church, Ras Ali insisted fighting and attempted to enlist an outlaw named Kassa (future Tewodros II) to his cause. Kassa as the future Emperor of Ethiopia, considerate himself as descendant of both Solomon and Alexander the Great by responding fighting Ali. Through this time, Gondar resembled to base of operations rather than a capital, yet there was small European community with one of these was the British Consul, Charles Duncan Cameron.[14][15]

Starting from Battle of Ayshal in 1852, Kassa refused to order Ras Ali II, who controlled most princes and regions of northern Ethiopia, for his perennial military expedition against Gojjam. In response, Dejazmach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam, an ally of Ras Ali II, clashed with Kassa's army at the Battle of Gur Amba (27 November 1852). Ras Ali II left Gondar for Debre Tabor to call troops in rival provinces of Tigray, Wollo, Yejju. Afterward, he returned to Gondar where Kassa had occupied. In the Battle of Takusa (12 April 1853), Kassa pillaged Debre Tabor in 1852. On 29 June, Kassa proceeded destroying Ras Ali II's Oromo cavalry in one of costliest battles during the Zemene Mesafint, where Ali II died in 1856 after retreating to Yejju.[16][17]

In 1854, Kassa Hailu took control of the town and called upon its nobles, citizens and clergy to accept his candidacy to the throne. The city assembly proclaimed him King of Kings and many cattle were slaughtered for the occasion and the Emperor gave alms generously to the poor. Tewodros, found it necessary to fight against local rulers and their followers in other areas, and was not attracted to Gondar which moreover seemed to him a symbol of Ethiopia's decadence. In 1864, Tewodros ordered the Muslim inhabitants of the city to convert to Christianity or leave, forcing many of them to flee the country. Relations between Tewodros and Gondar continued to deteriorate because of their suspected complicity in rebellion and the bitter disputes the Emperor had with the clergy. By the end of 1864, Tewodros declared Gondar to be a "town of priests who do not love me!" and ordered the city to be violently sacked and destroyed. His soldiers robbed the priests, burned down their residences, and plundered the monasteries in the former capital.[18][19]

Emperor Yohannes IV spent the first part of his reign in Debre Tabor as Tewodros had done before him. The disappearance of the Emperor and his court led to a large demographic reduction in the city, Gondar's population, well over 60,000 in the 18th century, was said by some observers to have dwindled to only 8,000 in the 1870s. In the late 1880s, Gondar suffered serious blows as a result of fighting with the Mahdist Sudanese. The Ethiopian historian Blatengeta Heruy Wald Selassie, relates that the Mahdists entered the city in January 1888 "and burnt all the churches. Those who were brave were slaughtered on the spot, while the cowardly fled. The remainder, women and children were made prisoners and taken into slavery." In June of the following year the Mahdists again marched into Gondar and, "massacred the great and the humble, the men and women whom they found." As a result, Gondar towards the end of the century was thus little more than a ghost town abandoned in ruins.[11][20][21]

20th century

[edit]

In early 1900s, peace and stability resulted in some revival in Gondar's fortunes. Gondar was favorably situated between Sudan to the west, Addis Ababa to the south, and Eritrea to the north and hence enjoyed a sizeable amount of commerce. With thousands of traders traveling from Gallabat and Adwa, the merchants of Gondar and in Begemder were to find immediate sale for their merchandise. There were Italian representatives residing in Gondar; a merchant named Caremelli imported Italian cotton goods and distributed them in Gondar, and an Italian medical doctor gave free medical service to patients in Gondar. The Arab merchants brought in and sold rifles and revolvers.[22][23]

The Italian enterprise in Italian Eritrea began Red Sea commerce instructed by Major Ciccodicola, the Italian Minister at Addis Ababa. Some two months, Major Ciccodicola communicated to Emperor Menelik II that Ferdinando Martini (1897–1907) to get permission for extending mule caravan road from Nuqara to Gondar. He also added that at the completion of the road, it would be owned by the Ethiopian government.[22]

In 1930, revolts occurred in Gondar just before Emperor Haile Selassie inauguration were clear attempt to prevent his rule over the area. Haile Selassie then imposed central government in Gondar and Tigray which met resistance to topple the government.[24] On 1 April 1936, the Italian troops occupied Gondar and within two years, 2,000 Europeans lived in the city.[25] On 13–17 November 1941, the British and Italian military fought in Gondar during the East African Campaign of World War II, marking the withdrawal of Italian force from Italian East Africa.[26]

In 1944, attempt to introduce land taxes following the Italian evacuation of the area met with military opposition in Gondar and Tigray.[24] By 1950s, the population of Gondar has been fallen to 13,000, with few churches remaining. Still, Gondar was important religious center, becoming poor town with few modern amenities. Gondar traded cotton, saddles, shoes, ornaments, and cloth with other regions of the Blue Nile, but otherwise cut off the world.[14] In 1970s, Gondar and Welega were hit by severe drought while the hardest year was in 1983–86.[27]

The 1974 revolution affected azmaris and social and economic life of Gondar, creating Ethiopian diaspora in various parts of the world.[28] During the Ethiopian Civil War, the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) reported that they actively engaging war against the Derg regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam in the northern province of Gondar.[29]

In February 1989, the Soviet refused to ship more arms, and series of defeat of the Derg evacuated the government from Tigray Province. The TPLF then assembled the Amhara Democratic Party which formed the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) and their force advanced to Gondar and Wollo Province. Shortly, They cut Addis Ababa–Gondar road and put Gojjam at risk. On 23 February 1991, the EPRDF launched military offensive codenamed "Operation Tewodros" against government in Gondar.[30] In May 1991, Gondar was occupied by EPRDF forces concurrently with Wollo, Tigray and Gojjam.[31]

21st century

[edit]

As a result of the War in Amhara that began in 2023, Gondar has seen a surge in violent crimes, including robbery, kidnapping, and murder.[32]

On 17 September, Fano launched a large-scale offensive against Gondar, one of the largest cities in the Amhara region. Footage claimed to have shown the ENDF using tanks to shoot at densely populated neighbourhoods in Gondar.[33] After heavy fighting, Fano claimed to have taken control of much of Gondar.[34][35][5][36] The clashes resulted in the deaths of at least nine people and injuries to more than 30 others.[5] After two days of intense fighting, Fano eventually withdrew from Gondar, as of October 2024 the city remains under Ethiopian government control.[37]

Cityscape

[edit]
Crowds gather at the Fasilides' Bath in Gondar to celebrate Timkat – the Epiphany for the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

Gondar traditionally was divided into several neighborhoods or quarters. These quarters are: Addis Alem, where the Muslim inhabitants dwelt; Kayla Mayda, where the adherents of Beta Israel lived; Abun Bet, centered on the residence of the Abuna, or nominal head of the Ethiopian Church; and Qagn Bet, home to the nobility.[38]: 16ff  Gondar is also a noted center of ecclesiastical learning of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and known for having 44 churches – for many years more than any other settlement in Ethiopia. Gondar and its surrounding countryside constitute the homeland of most Ethiopian Jews.

The modern city of Gondar is popular as a tourist destination for its many picturesque ruins in Fasil Ghebbi (the Royal Enclosure), from which the emperors once reigned. The most famous buildings in the city lie in the Royal Enclosure, which include Fasilides' castle, Iyasu's palace, Dawit's Hall, a banqueting hall, stables, Empress Mentewab's castle, a chancellery, library and three churches. Near the city lie Fasilides' Bath, home to an annual ceremony where it is blessed and then opened for bathing; the Qusquam complex, built by Empress Mentewab; the eighteenth century Ras Mikael Sehul's Palace and the Debre Berhan Selassie Church.

Downtown Gondar shows the influence of the Italian occupation of the late 1930s. The main piazza features shops, a cinema, and other public buildings in a simplified Italian Moderne style still distinctively of the period despite later changes and, frequently, neglect. Villas and flats in the nearby quarter that once housed occupation officials and colonists are also of interest.

Education

[edit]

The town is home to the University of Gondar, which includes Ethiopia's main faculty of medicine. Teda Health Science College is also located at this town.

Demographics

[edit]
See also: Languages of Ethiopia
Historical population
YearPop.±%
198480,886—    
1994112,249+38.8%
2007207,044+84.5%
2015323,900+56.4%
source:[39]

Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), the woreda had a total population of 207,044, an increase of 84.45% from the 1994 census, of whom 98,120 were male and 108,924 female. A total of 53,725 households were counted in this woreda, resulting in an average of 3.85 persons to a household, and 50,818 housing units. The majority of the inhabitants practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 84.15% reporting that as their religion, while 11.77% of the population said they were Muslim.[1]

Ethnic groups of Gondar in 1994[40]

  Amhara (88.91%)
  Tigrayan (6.74%)
  Qemant (2.37%)
  Other (1.98%)

The 1994 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 112,249 in 22,932 households, of whom 51,366 were male and 60,883 female. The three largest ethnic groups reported in Gondar were the Amhara (88.91%), Tigrayans (6.74%), and Qemant (2.37%); all other ethnic groups made up 1.98% of the population. Amharic was spoken as a first language by 94.57% of the population and Tigrinya was spoken as a first language by 4.67% of the population; the remaining 0.76% spoke all other primary languages reported. 83.31% practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and 15.83% of the population said they were Muslim.[40]

Documentation with 3D laser scanners

[edit]

The Zamani Project documented Fasil Ghebbi in the center of Gondar with terrestrial 3D laser scanning.[41][42][43] The structures documented include: the Castle of Emperor Fasilides, the Bakaffa Castle, Dawit III's Hall, the Castle of Emperor Iyasu, the Royal Library, the Chancellery, the Royal Archive Building .

Some of the textured 3D models, a panorama tour, elevations, sections and plans are available on www.zamaniproject.org.

Transport

[edit]

Air transport is served by Gondar Airport (ICAO code HAGN, IATA GDQ), also known as Atse Tewodros Airport, after the Emperor of Ethiopia (Atse) Tewodros. It is 18 km (11 miles) south of the city.[44] Travel within Gondar is mostly done by mini-buses and 3-wheeler motorcycles (accommodating 3–4 passengers).

Intercity bus service is provided by the forward trvellers sacco and Sky Bus Transport System, as well as independently owned buses that depart from the town bus station.

Climate

[edit]

The climate of Gondar is mild, temperate to warm, with an average temperature of 20 °C year round.[45] Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as subtropical highland (Cwb).[46]

Climate data for Gondar
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 31.0
(87.8) 		33.4
(92.1) 		33.5
(92.3) 		34.1
(93.4) 		33.4
(92.1) 		34.8
(94.6) 		26.6
(79.9) 		31.0
(87.8) 		29.9
(85.8) 		29.6
(85.3) 		29.7
(85.5) 		30.2
(86.4) 		34.8
(94.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 28.4
(83.1) 		29.2
(84.6) 		29.3
(84.7) 		27.9
(82.2) 		26.6
(79.9) 		25.2
(77.4) 		23.6
(74.5) 		24.1
(75.4) 		25.0
(77.0) 		26.2
(79.2) 		27.5
(81.5) 		27.9
(82.2) 		26.7
(80.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 19.8
(67.6) 		21.5
(70.7) 		22.7
(72.9) 		22.7
(72.9) 		21.7
(71.1) 		19.7
(67.5) 		17.8
(64.0) 		17.9
(64.2) 		18.7
(65.7) 		19.2
(66.6) 		19.3
(66.7) 		19.4
(66.9) 		20.0
(68.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 10.4
(50.7) 		11.6
(52.9) 		12.5
(54.5) 		13.6
(56.5) 		13.8
(56.8) 		13.9
(57.0) 		14.0
(57.2) 		13.9
(57.0) 		13.1
(55.6) 		11.8
(53.2) 		9.4
(48.9) 		9.2
(48.6) 		12.3
(54.1)
Record low °C (°F) 3.0
(37.4) 		5.2
(41.4) 		6.2
(43.2) 		9.2
(48.6) 		5.5
(41.9) 		6.0
(42.8) 		8.4
(47.1) 		8.0
(46.4) 		7.0
(44.6) 		6.0
(42.8) 		4.5
(40.1) 		1.6
(34.9) 		1.6
(34.9)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 2
(0.1) 		2
(0.1) 		13
(0.5) 		32
(1.3) 		72
(2.8) 		160
(6.3) 		293
(11.5) 		275
(10.8) 		112
(4.4) 		60
(2.4) 		12
(0.5) 		4
(0.2) 		1,037
(40.9)
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) 0 0 2 5 12 13 20 21 19 15 3 0 110
Average relative humidity (%) 44 40 39 39 52 69 79 79 72 65 56 48 57
Mean monthly sunshine hours 291.4 243.0 229.4 249.0 238.7 183.0 114.7 139.5 204.0 229.4 240.0 279.0 2,641.1
Mean daily sunshine hours 9.4 8.6 7.4 8.3 7.7 6.1 3.7 4.5 6.8 7.4 8.0 9.0 7.2
Source 1: National Meteorology Agency (average high and low)[47]
Source 2: World Meteorological Organisation (rainfall 1981–2010)[48]Deutscher Wetterdienst (mean temperatures 1954–1990, humidity 1957–1982, and sun 1937–1990)[49] Meteo Climat (extremes 1924–present)[50]

Sister cities

[edit]

As designated by Sister Cities International, Gondar is a sister city with:

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Based on the BGN/PCGN romanization of Amharic.
  2. ^ Based on the EAE romanization of Amharic.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Census 2007 Tables: Amhara Region, Tables 2.1, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1, 3.2 and 3.4.
  2. ^ a b "Population Projection Towns as of July 2021" (PDF). Ethiopian Statistics Agency. 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
  3. ^ http://bjtoursandtrekking.com/tours/index.htm Gondar World Heritage Site
  4. ^ Richard K.P. Pankhurst, History of Ethiopian Towns: From the Middle Ages to the Early Nineteenth Century (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982), vol. 1 p. 117.
  5. ^ a b c "Nine dead in renewed fighting in Ethiopia's Amhara region". Voice of America. 17 September 2024. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  6. ^ Getahun, Solomon Addis (2012). "Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa: The Case of Gondar, Ethiopia". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 45: 117–133. ISSN 0304-2243. JSTOR 44325777.
  7. ^ Visas (22 July 2019). "Gondar Travel Guide: Tourist Attractions and History". Ethiopia Online Visa. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  8. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1961). An introduction to the economic history of Ethiopia, from early times to 1800. Lalibela House. p. 125.
  9. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History Of Ethiopian Towns. p. 125. ISBN 9783515032049.
  10. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History Of Ethiopian Towns. p. 128. ISBN 9783515032049.
  11. ^ a b Zewde, Bahru (1988). "Gondär In the Early Twentieth Century: A Preliminary Investigation of a 1930/31 Census". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 21: 57–81. ISSN 0304-2243. JSTOR 41965962.
  12. ^ "Discover The Rich History Of Gondar A.K.A. The Camelot Of Africa". Travel + Leisure India. 16 November 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  13. ^ a b c d Pankhurst, Richard (1979). "An Eighteenth Century Ethiopian Dynastic Marriage Contract between Empress Mentewwab of Gondar and Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tegre". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 42 (3): 457–466. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00135748. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 615570. S2CID 154802525.
  14. ^ a b Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (5 March 2014). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
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  16. ^ Ofcansky, Thomas P.; Shinn, David H. (29 March 2004). Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8108-6566-2.
  17. ^ R. Pankhurst, in UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol VI: Africa in the Nineteenth Century p.397
  18. ^ Ajayi, J. F. Ade (1 January 1989). Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s. UNESCO. p. 397. ISBN 978-92-3-101712-4.
  19. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History of Ethiopian towns from the mid 19th century to 1935. p. 46.
  20. ^ Prunier, Gérard; Ficquet, Éloi (2015). Understanding Contemporary Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-84904-261-1.
  21. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History of Ethiopian towns from the mid 19th century to 1935. p. 55.
  22. ^ a b Ahmad, Abdussamad H. (1996). "Trade and Islam in the Towns of Bägemdir 1900-1935". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 29 (2): 5–21. ISSN 0304-2243. JSTOR 44259280.
  23. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History of Ethiopian towns from the mid 19th century to 1935. p. 344.
  24. ^ a b Clay, Jason W.; Holcomb, Bonnie K. Politics and the Ethiopian Famine: 1984 - 1985. Transaction Publishers. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4128-3128-4.
  25. ^ Rifkind, David (2011). "Gondar: Architecture and Urbanism for Italy's Fascist Empire". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 70 (4): 492–511. doi:10.1525/jsah.2011.70.4.492. ISSN 0037-9808. JSTOR 10.1525/jsah.2011.70.4.492.
  26. ^ Sobski, Marek (10 December 2020). East Africa 1940-1941 (land Campaign): The Italian Army Defends The Empire In The Horn Of Africa. Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP Print US. ISBN 979-8-5778-6912-0.
  27. ^ Webb, Patrick; Braun, Joachim Von; Yohannes, Yisehac (1992). Famine in Ethiopia: Policy Implications of Coping Failure at National and Household Levels. Intl Food Policy Res Inst. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-89629-095-2.
  28. ^ Ashagrie, Solomon (31 December 2022). Ok, Gwang (ed.). "Local resistance against the Derg in Ethiopia: The case of Admasu Belay rebellion". Cogent Social Sciences. 8 (1): 2023972. doi:10.1080/23311886.2021.2023972. S2CID 246659921.
  29. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Ethiopia: Information regarding whether Gondar province supports guerrillas". Refworld. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
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[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Gondar.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to ጎንደር.
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